Contents
In ordinary logic, more pressure produces more effect. The strategist Edward N. Luttwak has described why this often does not hold in conflicts. Wherever an opponent can react, a measure turns into its opposite beyond a certain point. The Kulturkampf (literally “culture struggle”) is one of the clearest examples of this Paradoxical Logic in German history.
A state against a church
Situation
After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, Bismarck sees the Catholic Church and the new Center Party as a danger to the young state. In December 1871, the Pulpit Law is introduced: clergy can be punished if, in the exercise of their office, they endanger public peace. In 1872 come the Prussian School Supervision Act and the Jesuit Law, which bans the order throughout the empire.
Link to the principle
The logic behind this is linear. If you want to reduce the influence of an organization, you restrict its means. That works as long as those affected don’t fight back. In a conflict, however, people respond to pressure, and their response changes the situation.
More laws, more penalties
Situation
The May Laws of 1873 place the training and appointment of clergy under state control. In 1875, the Breadbasket Law cuts off state payments to the church, and the Congregations Law dissolves religious orders in Prussia. Bishops are arrested or go into exile, among them Bishop Matthias Eberhard of Trier and Archbishop Mieczysław Ledóchowski of Posen. By the end of the conflict, according to common estimates, around 1,800 priests have been imprisoned.
Link to the principle
Each new restriction increases not only the pressure but also the visibility of those affected. Arrested bishops become martyrs, and parishes left without priests become signs of injustice. The measures supply the opponent with the images it needs.
The election of 1874
Situation
In the Reichstag election of January 10, 1874, the Center Party almost doubles its vote, from around 724,000 in 1871 to around 1.45 million. Its share rises from 18.6% to 27.9%, and its number of seats from 63 to 91. Turnout rises too, from 51.0% to 61.2%.
Link to the principle
This is paradoxical logic in numbers. The pressure was meant to reduce the political weight of Catholics. It increased it. Pressure alone does not explain the gain; turnout also rose significantly. But the direction is clear: instead of shrinking, the Catholic camp rallied behind the Center Party.
“We will not go to Canossa”
Situation
In 1872, Bismarck had declared in the Reichstag that the empire would not go to Canossa, in other words, that the state would not bow to the church. In January 1873, the liberal deputy Rudolf Virchow spoke in the Prussian House of Representatives of a great Kulturkampf, a struggle for civilization. In the years that followed, the Center Party remained strong, and in 1881 and 1884 it was the largest parliamentary group in the Reichstag.
Link to the principle
Big words make retreats difficult. If you declare a conflict to be a matter of honor, you lose the ability to respond wisely to the counterreaction. Paradoxical logic then keeps working unchecked.
The quiet retreat
Situation
After the death of Pope Pius IX in 1878 and the election of Leo XIII, a rapprochement begins. In 1882, diplomatic relations are resumed, and the Peace Laws of 1886 and 1887 reverse many of the measures. In 1887, Leo XIII declares the struggle over. Some laws remain in force, such as civil marriage and state supervision of schools.
Link to the principle
In the end, Bismarck did go a good part of the way to Canossa after all. Paradoxical logic cannot be overcome permanently by increasing the pressure. You can only sidestep it by arranging the situation differently.
Key takeaways
Key lessons
- Keep in mind that pressure can make the other side stronger.
- Before tightening the screws, ask what images that supplies to your opponent.
- Shared hardship welds people together.
- Avoid big words that cut off your retreat.
- If more of the same doesn’t work, change your approach.
Summary
In the Kulturkampf, Otto von Bismarck tried to push back the influence of the Catholic Church with laws, penalties and arrests. Catholics closed ranks; in 1874 the Center Party grew from 63 to 91 seats and remained one of the strongest forces for years. The pressure had brought about what it was meant to prevent. After 1878, the state reversed many of its measures. This is paradoxical logic in Edward N. Luttwak’s sense.
Sources
- Edward N. Luttwak: Strategy: The Logic of War and Peace. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1987.
